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<div>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:14=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chapter 1</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Tuesday, June 28, 2005</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>10:54 AM</span></p>

</div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<div style=3D'position:relative;height:122.1395in'>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:5.6555in;top:23.852in;width:2.7604in'>=
<img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image001.gif" width=3D265 height=3D138></div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:.0104in;width:9.875in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Look at prokaryote cells to see how=
 we
work</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Prokaryotes=
 vs.
Eukaryotes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>There are two main types of cells, prokaryotes and eukaryotes</span><=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes have both similarities and differences</sp=
an></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Prokaryote<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-weight:bol=
d;
font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.=
125in'>Eukaryote</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>NO Nucleus</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Nucleus</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>No membrane bound organelles</span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Mitochondri=
a</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>some sort of plasma membrane</span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Membrane bo=
und
organelles</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>ribosomes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>ER/Golgi Co=
mpex</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>No cytoskeleton but have somethiung=
 like
it</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Plasma memb=
rane</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Cytoskeleton</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Ribosomes</=
span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>lysosomes</=
span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Peroxosomes=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Contractile
Vacuole</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Flagella/ci=
llia</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Circular DNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Linear DNA<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Eukaryote</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Cells that =
have a
nuclear envelope, cytoplasmic organelles, and a cytoskeleton</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image004.gif" width=3D639 height=3D4=
84></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Tahoma;font-size:8.0=
pt;
color:#666666'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Screen clipping
taken: 6/28/2005, 4:52 PM</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Prokaryote</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Cells lacki=
ng a
nuclear envelope, cytoplasmic organelles, and a cytoskeleton (bacteria)</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Viruses are different, neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes</span></spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Viruses</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Have some kind of protein budding o=
ut on
the outside and some sort of genetic material usually DNA in the inside</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Tightly packed DNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Different are neither prokaryotes n=
or
eukaryotes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Not alive and very diverse</span></=
p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>RNA as its genetic material </span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>RNA simpler than DNA and self repli=
cating
(via reverse transcriptase) but unstable and not a good model for permanent
replication</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'>All
life has DNA as its genetic material</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>This is how genes are passed down f=
rom
one generation to the next</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>3 Types to
Generate Metabolic Energy</span></p>

<ol type=3D1 style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Glycolysis</span></li>
 <ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Break sugar down into say alc=
ohol
      or lactic acid</span></li>
 </ol>
 <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Photosynthesis</span></li>
 <ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Done by plants and provides e=
nergy
      for complex organic molecules used in glycolysis and oxidative
      phosphorylation</span></li>
 </ol>
 <li value=3D3 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Oxidative Phosphorylation</spa=
n></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>We are only 1000x more complex than=
 a
simple prokaryote cell (E-coli) not all that much such that studying
prokaryotes can help in understanding more complex Eukaryotes </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Animal Cell=
 vs
Plant Cell</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Plasma Membrane not smooth</span></=
p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.=
125in'>Animal
Cell</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image005.gif" width=3D640 height=3D4=
78></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Organelles</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image006.gif" width=3D266 height=3D1=
34></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Nucleus</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The most
prominent organelle of eukaryotic cells; contains the genetic material</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image007.gif" width=3D492 height=3D3=
65></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Mitochondria</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Cytoplasmic organelles responsible =
for
synthesis of most of the ATP in eukaryotic cells by oxidative phosphorlatio=
n</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Two membrane system</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image008.gif" width=3D495 height=3D3=
74></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Golgi apparatus</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A cytoplasmic organelle involved in=
 the
processing and sorting of proteins and lipids.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:y=
es'> 
</span>In plant cells, it is also the site of the synthesis of cell wall
polysaccharides</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image009.gif" width=3D481 height=3D3=
59></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Lysosome</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A cytoplasmic organelle containing
enzymes that break down biological polymers</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image010.gif" width=3D536 height=3D4=
00></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Peroxisome</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A cytoplasmic organelle specialized=
 for
carrying out oxidative reactions</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image011.gif" width=3D515 height=3D3=
88></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Endoplasmic Reticulum</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>An extensive network of membrane-en=
coded
tubules and sacs involved in protein sorting and processing as well as lipid
synthesis</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image012.gif" width=3D525 height=3D3=
93></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Cytoskeleton</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A network of protein filaments that
extends throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>It provides the structural framework o=
f the
cells and is responsible for cell movement</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image013.gif" width=3D266 height=3D1=
79></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.=
125in'>Plant
Cell</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Different from animal cell in that =
it has
a <span style=3D'text-decoration:underline'>cell wall</span> (two cell wall=
s, a
primary and a secondary)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'text-decoration:unde=
rline'>Large
central vacuole</span> cell in the center that performs functions like a tr=
ash
car and closet and is responsible for the digestion of macromolecules and t=
he
storage of both wastes products and nutrients </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image014.gif" width=3D415 height=3D3=
08></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'>Tonoplast:
a membrane that encloses the central vacuole in a plant cell, separating the
cytosol from the cell sap is a phospholipid bi-layer</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Contains….</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Nucleus, Golgi, ER near nucleus, go=
lgi
sacs, mitochondria</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15
height=3D15>&nbsp;<span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Chloroplasts</span></span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The organ responsible for photosynt=
hesis
in the cells of plants and green algae</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Have sacs of membranes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image015.gif" width=3D508 height=3D3=
85></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Golgi apparatus</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A cytoplasmic organelle involved in=
 the
processing and sorting of proteins and lipids.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:y=
es'> 
</span>In plant cells, it is also the site of the synthesis of cell wall
polysaccharides</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Plant Cell
basically =3D animal cell + Large central vacuole + Chloroplasts + Cell Wal=
l</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>DNA: found in both prokaryote and
eukaryotes</span></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:5.6763in;top:29.5083in;width:2.7388in'=
><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image016.gif" width=3D263 height=3D179></div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:6.3125in;top:50.1326in;width:2.75in'><=
img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image017.gif" width=3D264 height=3D189></div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:6.1562in;top:44.8618in;width:2.7708in'=
><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image018.gif" width=3D266 height=3D196></div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:6.2597in;top:39.2888in;width:2.7388in'=
><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image019.gif" width=3D263 height=3D189></div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:5.6243in;top:33.7472in;width:2.8326in'=
><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image020.gif" width=3D272 height=3D230></div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:5.9055in;top:65.4472in;width:2.7916in'=
><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image021.gif" width=3D268 height=3D112></div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:4.8638in;top:59.1743in;width:2.6562in'=
><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image022.gif" width=3D255 height=3D141></div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:.0201in;top:90.0416in;width:11.1979in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Techniques =
to
study Cells</span></p>

<ol type=3D1 style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;mar=
gin-top:
 0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Microscopy</span></li>
 <ol type=3Da style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-weight:bold;font-family:Arial;font-size:10=
.0pt'><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Light Microscope</span></li>
 </ol>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Limited by
resolution (the ability to distinguish objects separated by small distances=
</span></p>

<ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:1.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-family:Arial;font-size:10=
.0pt'><img
     src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yell=
ow;
     mso-highlight:yellow'>Brightfield microscopy</span></span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The simples=
t form
of light microscopy, in which light passes directly through the cell and the
ability to distinguish different parts of the cell depends on the contrast
resulting from the absorption of visible light y cell components</span></p>

<ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:1.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-family:Arial;font-size:10=
.0pt'><img
     src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yell=
ow;
     mso-highlight:yellow'>Phase Contrast Microscopy</span></span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A type of
microscopy used in which variations in density and thickness between parts =
of
the cell are converted to differences in contrast in the final image</span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Common meth=
od
used for visualizing <span style=3D'font-weight:bold'>living </span>cells, =
stains
are not used</span></p>

<ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:1.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D3 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-family:Arial;font-size:10=
.0pt'><img
     src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yell=
ow;
     mso-highlight:yellow'>Fluorescence Microscope</span></span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Type of
microscopy in which molecules are detected based on emission of fluorescent
light</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Widely used=
 and
very sensitive method for studying the <span style=3D'font-style:italic'>in=
tracellular
distribution of molecules</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'>Can't
see much but linear stuff, usually will kill the specimen unless used with =
GE</span></p>

<ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:1.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D4 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-family:Arial;font-size:10=
.0pt'><img
     src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-style:norm=
al;
     background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Confocal Microscope</span></sp=
an></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A form of
microscopy in which fluorescence microscopy is combined with electron image
analysis to obtain images with increased contrast and detail.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'>Gets
rid of anything except one plane focus, gets rid of out of focus light</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Uses
fluorescence, looking at a single thickness</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A bunch of =
2D
images can be put together to from a 3D image</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 1.30=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-weight:bol=
d;
font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.=
125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<ol type=3Da style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-weight:bold;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.=
0pt'><span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Electron Microscopy</span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A type of
microscopy that uses an electron beam to form an image</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The electron
microscope can achieve a much greater resolution that that obtained with the
light microscope because the wavelengths of electrons is shorter than that =
of
light.</span></p>

<ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:1.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-family:Arial;font-size:10=
.0pt'><img
     src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yell=
ow;
     mso-highlight:yellow'>Scanning EM</span></span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Electrons
scattered from the surface of a specimen are analyzed to generate a
three-dimensional image</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'font-weight:bold'>Metals </span>have to be coated with metal </spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Below the
resolution of light, can look at single microtubules and single vesicles</s=
pan></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic'>3D Shape</span> produced, restricted to studying
whole cells rather than subcellular organelles or macromolecules</span></p>

<ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:1.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-family:Arial;font-size:10=
.0pt'><span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-style:norm=
al'>Differential
     Interference Contrast Microscopy</span></span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'>Can
be used to look at microtubules over very low resolution</span></p>

<ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:1.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D3 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-family:Arial;font-size:10=
.0pt'><img
     src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yell=
ow;
     mso-highlight:yellow'>Transmission Electron Microscopy</span></span></=
li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'>Can
see individual compartments and organelles</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Beam of ele=
ctrons
in passed through a specimen <span style=3D'font-style:italic'>stained with=
 heavy
metals.</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic'>Totally dead</span> cell but allows you to look=
 at
certain sections like the organelles like nucleus but can also lead to <span
style=3D'font-weight:bold'>many artifacts</span></span></p>

<ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:1.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D4 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-family:Arial;font-size:10=
.0pt'><span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-style:norm=
al'>Freeze
     Fracture</span></span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-style:ita=
lic;
font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:r=
elative;
left:.125in'>Used to study plasma membrane structure</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Discovered =
double
layers of membranes, freeze the cell then hit it, exposing and breaking the
cell along the membrane then coated with platinum and looked under electron
microscope, of course <span style=3D'font-style:italic'>cells are dead</spa=
n> for
this</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ol type=3D1 style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;mar=
gin-top:
 0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><img
     src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yell=
ow;
     mso-highlight:yellow'>Subcellular fractionation</span></span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Grind cells up and spin them at 800x
G.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Pellet out nucleus and things =
that
are very soluble remain in the supernate.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> 
</span>Then take the subernate Break cell apart and cut it into a bunch of
little pieces</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image023.gif" width=3D359 height=3D5=
52></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Tahoma;font-size:8.0=
pt;
color:#666666'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Screen clipping
taken: 7/10/2005, 5:57 PM</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<ol type=3D1 style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;mar=
gin-top:
 0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D3 style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><img
     src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yell=
ow;
     mso-highlight:yellow'>Velocity Centrifugation (density gradient)</span=
></span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The fractions obtained from the
differential centrifugation corresponds to enriched, but still not pure
preparations.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>A greater degree of
purification can be achieved by d<span style=3D'font-style:italic'>ensity-g=
radient
centrifugation</span>, in which<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> 
</span>organelles are separated by sedimentation through a gradient of a de=
nse
substance such as sucrose.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>In vel=
ocity
centrifugation, the starting material is layered on top of the sucrose
gradient.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Particles of different =
sizes
sediments through the gradient at different rates, moving as discrete
bands.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Following centrifugation t=
he
collection of individual fractions of the gradient provide sufficient
resolution to separate organelles of similar size, such as mitochondria,
lysosomes and peroxisomes.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Physical way to separate cell organ=
lles</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image024.gif" width=3D434 height=3D5=
31></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<ol type=3D1 style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;mar=
gin-top:
 0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D4 style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Tissue Culture</span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Grind of tissue and grind it up to =
so to
break the connections between the cells but not break up the individual cel=
ls
themselves</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt;
color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Can be used to=
 study
a particular protein in a cell and see what happens</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Help us learn cell structure and fu=
nction</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Heart Cell in culture</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 1.41=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image025.gif" width=3D503 height=3D8=
31></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Tahoma;font-size:8.0=
pt;
color:#666666'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Screen clipping
taken: 6/29/2005, 11:38 PM</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;top:74.6625in;width:10.0625in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>How do we s=
tudy
Cells?</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>We use model systems!</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt;
color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Observation +
Reductionism </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt;
color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Reductionism is
where we break down things and then try to figure out how individual aspects
work and then end up putting them back together </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Model Syste=
ms</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>To determine how cells function, model systems are studied by a varie=
ty
of techniques</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif"
width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
<span
style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>E. coli</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Rapidly divide in 20 minutes</span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Advan=
tages</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Very simple, <span style=3D'font-we=
ight:
bold'>small/simple genome,</span> <span style=3D'font-weight:bold'>replicat=
es
very quickly</span>, know all the genes and sequence, good for looking at D=
NA
and replication, simple nutritional requirements</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Investigation of the basic mechanis=
ms of
molecular genetics</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Most of our understanding of <span
style=3D'font-weight:bold;text-decoration:underline'>DNA replication</span>=
, the <span
style=3D'text-decoration:underline'>genetic code</span>, <span style=3D'tex=
t-decoration:
underline'>gene expression</span>, and <span style=3D'text-decoration:under=
line'>protein
synthesis</span> derive from studies of E. coli</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Disad=
vantages</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Simple, single cell, prokaryotic (no
membrane bound organelles like mitochondria or chloroplasts) would NOT woul=
d to
use it to look at secretion</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Can not be used to study aspects of=
 cell
structure and function that are unique to eukaryotes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Yeast</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;
background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>S. cerivisia </span><span
style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>(more common and one used =
in
book)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>S. pombe</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Advan=
tages:</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Single cell, prokaryotic, secretion=
s of
alcohol fundamental aspects of eukaryotic cell biology, simple genome compa=
red
to more complex eukaryotes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Disad=
vantage</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Bad for cell to cell interaction, f=
ungus
that has a cell wall so not too much like humans</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt;
color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Studies of the=
ir DNA
sequences indicate that the archaebacteria and eubacteria are as different =
from
each other as either is from present day eukaryotes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:Ar=
ial;
font-size:10.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'>S.
cerivisia are very different S. pombe but they are as different from each o=
ther
as we are from them!</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif"
width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
<span
style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Drosophila Melanogaster</s=
pan></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Advan=
tages:</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Replicates quick, 7 day life cycle,
developmental experiments, fundamental concepts of genetics, such as the
relationship between genes and chromosomes.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Disad=
vantages</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Has cytoskeleton, 4 chromosomes (sm=
all
genome), not to close to us </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-weight:bold;bac=
kground:
yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Dictyostelium (slug movie) </span><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>(D.
Discoideum)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Individual amoeba aggregate to one
another to from multicellular units which can now look for new conditions a=
s a
single organism (slug)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Culmination setup fruiting body, an=
terior
cells form stalks</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Use of proteins to adhere to one an=
other
and &quot;walk&quot;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Advan=
tages:</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Observe single cells moving around =
and
eating bacteria and cell to cell adhesion like when healing a wound/cut</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Can be single cell or multi-cell or=
ganism
can stream into slugs</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Good metafit cancer cells,
neutrophillis<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Disad=
vantages</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Makes cellulose which we don't make=
, not
a good model for cell to cell interaction, has no backbone or nerves</span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Clamydomona=
se
(flagella movie)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Green Algae. Pond scum, can have mu=
ltiple
flagella</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Advan=
tages:</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Flagella movement similar to mammal=
ian
sperm has same components, can be grown by the liters</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Disad=
vantages</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Arabadopsis</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Advan=
tages:</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Good plant model</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Disad=
vantages</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif"
width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
<span
style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>C. Elegans</span></span></=
p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Worm, simple genome, know the linea=
ge</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Advan=
tages:</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Model system for animal development,
smaller genome compared to more complex animals, relatively simple
multicellular organism</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Disad=
vantages</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>NO nervous system or blood vessels<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Xenopus</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Frog, eggs</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Advan=
tages:</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Early vertebrate developmental stag=
es</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Disad=
vantages</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Zebra Fish<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Advan=
tages:</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Transparent, embryo develop in four=
 days,
early embryology</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Disad=
vantages</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Fish, hard to take care of, difficu=
lt to
work with</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Mice</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Advan=
tages:</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Great model system with many similar
genetic mutations, pigmentation, a lot of similarities, entire genome has b=
een
sequenced, can do experiments on mice that you can not do on humans, genetic
mutations, similar homologous gene defects</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;text-decoration:underline;font-f=
amily:
Arial;font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Disad=
vantages</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Expensive to keep, short generation=
 time
for a mammal but long when compared to E-coli, can't really see what is goi=
ng
on them in early development but still a good model system for humans</span=
></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The Scale of
Evolution</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A long time ago we had molecules fo=
rming
on earth, then prokaryotes being made, then eukaryotic, then evolving into
multicellular organisms</span></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:5.2083in;top:94.925in;width:4.1041in'>=
<img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image026.gif" width=3D394 height=3D231></div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:5.4159in;top:102.7895in;width:3.6458in=
'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image027.gif" width=3D350 height=3D268></div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:4.4687in;top:97.9145in;width:5.7597in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'>Taking
the cell breaking them open, then isolating different factions by spinning =
them
different amounts of time.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>And ea=
ch time
you get a different organelle or protein</span></p>

</div>

</div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<div>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:14.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chapter 2 Molecular Composition of =
the
Cell</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Sunday, Jul=
y 10,
2005</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>6:13 PM</sp=
an></p>

</div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<div style=3D'position:relative;height:67.9326in'>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;top:0in;width:9.8222in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Molecular
Composition of the Cell</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Cells are m=
ade of
water, I</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>.norganic i=
ons
and organic molecules</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Water makes=
 up
70%of the cell mass</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Interactions
between water and everything else are extremely important</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Polar
interactions</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Water is a polar molecule</span></=
span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Interactions between water and oth=
er
     polar molecules for example carbohydrates help hold the cell together<=
/span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Polar molecules are soluble in wat=
er -
     hydrophilic</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Carbohydrates, DNA, protein</=
span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Non-polar molecules are NOT solubl=
e in
     water </span><span style=3D'font-family:Tahoma'>–</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> hydrophobic</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Lipids, plasma membrane</span=
></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Polar
interactions - Hydrogen Bonds</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Inorganic
Components of the cell</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Sodium, magnesium manganese,
     calcium, phosphate chloride and bicarbonate are less than 1% of the ce=
ll
     mass</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Important as co-factors and c=
ell
      transduction</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>Organic Molecules that make up the cell</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Nucleic Acids, Carbohydrates and Proteins are </span><span
style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-style:italic;background:lime;mso-highlight:l=
ime'>polymers</span><span
style=3D'font-weight:bold;background:lime;mso-highlight:lime'> </span><span
style=3D'background:lime;mso-highlight:lime'>made up of hundreds or thousan=
ds of
low molecular weight subunits (monomers) </span><span style=3D'font-weight:=
bold;
font-style:italic;background:lime;mso-highlight:lime'>Dehydration Condensat=
ion
Reactions</span></span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Carbohydrates</span></span></l=
i>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Formed via dehydration conden=
sation
      reaction</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Polymers (many subunits)</spa=
n></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Nucleic Acids</span></span></l=
i>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Formed via dehydration conden=
sation
      reaction</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Polymers (many subunits)</spa=
n></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Proteins</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Formed via dehydration conden=
sation
      reaction</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Polymers (many subunits)</spa=
n></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Lipids</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Not big enough to be polymers=
 TAG's
      with glycerol backbone</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;text-decoratio=
n:
underline;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Carbohydrates</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Sugars - if=
 &gt;
5 C, then can cyclize</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Depending o=
n the
structure of the sugar it may be involved in different things</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 2.2<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image028.=
gif"
width=3D615 height=3D466></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Formation o=
f a
glycosidic linkage</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>A dehydration condensation rea=
ction</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Occurs between sugar molecules=
</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image029.=
gif"
width=3D308 height=3D276></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Different
glycosidic linkages give rise to different polysaccarides</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Amylopectin (starch) </span><span
     style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US>=
Storage </span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US>(</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEL>α</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US> 1-4 bonds with <=
/span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEL>α</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US> 1-6 branching)</=
span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Glycogen </span><span style=3D'fon=
t-weight:
     bold;font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US>Storage </span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US>(</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEL>α</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US> 1-4 bonds with <=
/span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEL>α</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US> 1-6 branching)</=
span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Cellulose </span><span style=3D'fo=
nt-weight:
     bold;font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US>Structural </span><sp=
an
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US>Not Edible by us =
(</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEL>β</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US> 1-4 bonds)</span=
></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Shows us how selective enzyme=
s are
      and how they will only break certain bonds</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Specificity is important</spa=
n></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image030.=
gif"
width=3D539 height=3D406></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Tah=
oma;
font-size:8.0pt;color:#666666'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'>Screen
clipping taken: 7/10/2005, 7:39 PM</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;text-decoratio=
n:
underline;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Lipids</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Fatty acids=
</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Saturated have as many Hydrogens as
     possible</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Very flexible</span></span></=
li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Unsaturated have at least 1 C=
=3DC
     double bond and are </span><span style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family=
:"Times New Roman"'>kinky</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Triglycerid=
es</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Note Glycerol Backbone</span><=
/span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Note 3 Fatty acids hanging off=
 it!</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Building blocks for the all the
     phospholipids found in plasma membranes</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Lipid Compo=
sition
of Membranes</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The composition of the lipids =
in the
     membranes is important in how the protein work</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Many enzymes embedded in prote=
ins
     and if the wrong phospholipids are present the enzyme will not work</s=
pan></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>All membranes are not equal and
     depending on their function they will have different phospholipids and
     also different proteins</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Phospholipi=
ds -
main component of membranes</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Phosphate and two FA's bound to
     Glycerol</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#3366FF'>All except
     sphingomyelin have a glycerol backbone (it has a serine backbone)</spa=
n></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 2.7</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image031.=
gif"
width=3D736 height=3D291></span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>Phosphatidic =
Acid,
     Phosphatidyl-ethanolamine, Phosphatidyl-choline, Phosphatidylserine,
     Phosphatidyllinositiol, Sphingomyelin</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Cholesterol=
 and
Steroid Hormones</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Flat and planar, 4 ring struct=
ure</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 2.9</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image032.=
gif"
width=3D381 height=3D287></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Components =
of
Nucleic Acids (figure 2.10)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>DNA - a pol=
ymer
(like sugars) held together by <span style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlig=
ht:
yellow'>phosphodiester </span>bonds</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Another </span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#3366FF'>dehydration
     condensation reaction</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 2.11</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Bases play no part in the back=
bone
     (involved in base pairing)</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>DNA is held
together by Hydrogen bonds</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 2.12</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>Much more dif=
ficult
     to sequence that GC rich than DNA that is AT rich because you have to =
heat
     the DNA much higher if GC rich</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Structure o=
f an
Amino Acid</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 2.13=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Amino Acids=
 1
(Nonpolar Amino Acids/Hydrophobic)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Amino Acids=
 2
(Polar, Basic, Acidic)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Amino Acids=
 -
Building Blocks of Proteins</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Peptide Bond
Formation</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>another dehydration condensati=
on
     reaction</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 2.15</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Sugars held together by Glycosidic Bonds</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Proteins held together by peptide bonds</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>DNA/RNA held together by phophodiester bonds</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Protein Str=
ucture</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>1º =3D Amino Acid Sequence</s=
pan></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US>2º =3D Local Fol=
ding </span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEL>α</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US>-helices and </sp=
an><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEL>β</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"' lang=3DEN-US>-sheets (H- bondi=
ng)</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>3º =3D Long distance folding =
(3-D
     shape, interactions between R groups that form ionic bonds or interact=
ions
     between polar/nonpolar groups or disulfide bonds)</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>4º =3D multiple subunits fold=
ing
     together to give an active protein stabilized by the same interactions
     that stabilize 3º structure</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Protein str=
ucture
continued</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Enzymes</sp=
an></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Are proteins</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Enzymes are always proteins</=
span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Act to lower the activation en=
ergy
     of a reaction</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>lock and key model =3D perfect=
 fit</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>induced fit - initial binding =
of the
     substrate causes the enzyme to bind more tightly wet jeans</span></spa=
n></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Enzymatic A=
ction
Video</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Enzymes Str=
ucture</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida =
Sans Unicode"'>◗</span><span
style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> Active site - where substrate bind=
s</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida =
Sans Unicode"'>◗</span><span
style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> Allosteric site - where another,
regulatory molecule/ion can bind</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Coenzymes</=
span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Small organic molecules that c=
an be
     involved in enzymatic catalysis</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>NAD--&gt; NADH+ --&gt;NAD in
     oxidative-reduction reactions </span><span style=3D'font-family:Tahoma=
'>–</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> mitochondria</span></span></l=
i>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Coenzymes a=
nd
Vitamins</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Coenzymes derived from vitamin=
s</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Lipids form a water impermeable bi-layer, allowing for the cell to be
isolated from the surrounding environment and even for the portioning of
organelle components from the rest of the cell</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Cell Membra=
nes</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>separate the inside of the cell fr=
om the
     outside</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>create environments where norm=
ally
     “energetically unfavorable” reactions can take place</span></span>=
</li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Outside environment usually
      oxidizing (protein have disulfide bridges)</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Inside usually reducing (prot=
eins
      usually do not have disulfide bridges)</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Those endothermic reactions ca=
n take
     place in the cell at the expense of the sorrounding</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>a phosopholipid bilayer with
     embedded proteins</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Membrane Li=
pids</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida =
Sans Unicode"'>◗</span><span
style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> fatty acid tails of phosopholipids=
 stick
together to form a hydrophobic bilayer</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida =
Sans Unicode"'>◗</span><span
style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> phosphate groups on the phospholip=
ids
are very hydrophillic</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:Tahoma'>=
•</span><span
style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> point away from the fatty acid tai=
ls
into an aqueous environment (inside the cell or outside the cell)</span></s=
pan></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Phospholipi=
ds</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>VERY mobile</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Can move around very quickly</=
span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>BUT only in the plane of the membr=
ane
     (Diffuse rapidly in 2 dimensions)</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CAN NOT flip-flop from one lea=
flet
     to the other,</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>unless a “flipase” is invo=
lved</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Membrane fl=
uidity</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Mostly due to phospholipids</span>=
</span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Longer fatty acid chains are more =
“rigid”
     or “stable” to high temperatures (think of drag in long ones, can'=
t move
     around as well)</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Unsaturated fatty acid chains =
are
     “kinky” membranes so they don’t pack as tightly against the other
     phospholipids, resulting in a more “fluid” membrane</span></span><=
/li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>More on Mem=
brane
Fluidity</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Cholesterol can also affect me=
mbrane
     fluidity</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relati=
ve;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>At </span>=
<span
      style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman"'>high
      temperatures, </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Ch=
olesterol
      </span><span style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman"=
'>decreases
      membrane fluidity</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'=
> by
      preventing the phospholipids from moving around very quickly</span></=
span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relati=
ve;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>At </span>=
<span
      style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman"'>low tempera=
tures,</span><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> Cholesterol </span><span
      style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman"'>increases
      membrane fluidity</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'=
> by
      preventing the phospholipids from packing very tightly together</span=
></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Membrane fl=
uidity
and membrane proteins</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Many membrane proteins need the
     right phospholipid mix to function properly</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>SO…. </span><span style=3D'f=
ont-family:
     "Times New Roman";color:#3366FF'>Membrane fluidity is critical to the
     cell’s ability to carry out basic cellular functions </span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>- for example</span></span></l=
i>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>transport of molecules across=
 the
      membrane</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>signal transduction (cell
      signaling)</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Endocytosis (picking up nutri=
ents
      from outside of the cell)</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>cell motility, etc…(mitocho=
ndria
      transport)</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Membranes a=
s a
fluid mosaic of proteins in a lipid bilayer Fig.2.48</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>2 main classes of membrane pro=
teins</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Integral (transmembrane usuall=
y)</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>embedded in the lipid bilayer=
</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>can only be removed by additi=
on of
      detergent (destroy plasma membrane)</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Peripheral</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>associated with either the in=
side
      or outside of the membrane (charge to charge interactions)</span></sp=
an></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>can be removed by high salt</=
span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>can be removed by high or low=
 pH</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Removed without destroying the
      lipid bilayer</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 2.48</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'>Modification
of the Fluid membrane</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highlight=
:yellow'>Not
     all parts of the membrane are the same</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'>Does behave like a mosaic in that phospholipids are fluid</sp=
an></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highlight=
:yellow'>But
     there are micro-domains called </span><span style=3D'font-weight:bold;
     font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>=
lipid
     rafts</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'>Probably all Eukaryote cells have them (have cholesterol)</sp=
an></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'>These domains are different from the surrounding domains in t=
hat
      they are cholesterol and sphingomyelin rich</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'>Have different lipids in them compared to the surrounding are=
a</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'>These rafts are rich in proteins that have a lipid anchor GPI
      (post trans mod)</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'>Contain proteins that are involved in signal transduction (ce=
ll
      signaling the cell) and adhesion (cells going together to form a tiss=
ue
      or crawl along)</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'>Not all lipid rafts are equal and not all are stable, exist v=
ery
      shortly</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Lipids Rafts
(online info)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'font-weight:bold'>Lipid rafts</span> are <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DCholesterol&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>cholesterol</span></a>-rich microdomains in <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DCell+membrane&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>cell membranes</span></a>.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Since <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3D1972&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>1972</span></a>, it has been believed that, in cell
membranes, <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DPhospholipid&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>phospholipids</span></a> and membrane <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DProtein&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>proteins</span></a> are ubiquitously distributed accor=
ding
to a <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DCell+membrane&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>fluid mosaic model</span></a>. However, in <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3D1988&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>1988</span></a>, Kai Simons at the <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DEuropean+Molecular+Biology+Laboratory&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222=
_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>European Molecular Biology Laboratory</span></a> (EMBL=
) in <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DGermany&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>Germany</span></a> suggested the novel idea that there=
 exist
microdomains, which are enriched with many kinds of lipids such as choleste=
rol,
<a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DGlycolipid&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>glycolipids</span></a>, and <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DSphingolipid&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>sphingolipids</span></a>, present in cell membranes. He
called these microdomains &quot;lipid rafts&quot;. The concept of lipid raf=
ts
has been related to the liquid-liquid immiscibility observed within model
membranes. This immmiscibility has been reported between two liquid crystal=
line
phases, the liquid ordered phase (Lo phase) and the liquid disordered phase=
 (Ld
or Lalpha phase).</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The evidenc=
e for
lipid rafts is still very controversial and has yet to be confirmed despite
many experiments involving several different methods e.g. detergent extract=
ion
and fluorescence cell imaging. Furthermore, recent studies of cell membranes
reported that lipid rafts contain not only lipid components but also numero=
us
signaling molecules such as <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DGPI+anchor&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>GPI-anchored</span></a> proteins and receptor or
non-receptor type <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DTyrosine+kinase&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>tyrosine</span></a><a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DTyrosine+kinase&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'> </span></a><a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DTyrosine+kinase&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>kinase</span></a>, which modulate various physiological
processes in cells. Therefore, lipid rafts are thought to act as a platform=
 for
protein segregation and signaling in cells. However, the functional role of
lipid rafts still remains very uncertain because it has not been determined
whether they have a positive effect or negative effect on <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DSignal+transduction&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>signal</span></a><a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DSignal+transduction&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'> </span></a><a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DSignal+transduction&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>transduction</span></a> in cells. Investigating the ef=
fect
of the lipid components on cellular signaling pathways may provide a novel
understanding of the roles of lipid rafts in cells.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Premeabilit=
y of
the Membrane</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Passive Tra=
nsport</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Small non polar molecules can
     diffuse across the membrane (Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, etc.) down their
     concentration gradient</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Charged or Large molecules can=
 NOT
     diffuse across the membrane because of hydrophobic core</span></span><=
/li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>They cross via Channel protein=
s or
     carrier proteins</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>How semi-bi=
g or
charged stuff gets into the cell (fig. 2.50)</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Channel Proteins - form pores =
or
     channels in the membrane through which small charged things through - =
Ion
     channels</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Carrier Proteins - allow things
     through by undergoing a conformational change upon the molecule bindin=
g to
     the carrier protein</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Active Tran=
sport</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>See fig. 2.51</span></span></l=
i>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>How to get stuff into the cell=
 even
     if the concentration gradient is going the other direction</span></spa=
n></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>USE ENERGY of some sort (usual=
ly
     ATP) to drive things through a transport protein</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>against the
concentration gradient</span></p>

</div>

</div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<div style=3D'position:relative;height:.3333in'>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;width:2.7881in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:16=
.5pt'><img
src=3D"chap1-4_files/image033.gif" width=3D266 height=3D32></p>

</div>

</div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<div>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:14.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Molecular
Biology</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Thursday, June 30, 2005</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>3:40 PM</span></p>

</div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<div style=3D'position:relative;height:114.5951in'>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;width:6.9888in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
DNA</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The genetic
     material</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Genes are e=
ncoded
     in the DNA</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Inherited i=
n a
     Mendelian Fashion</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Unless the=
y are
      near each other on a chromosome, then they appear to be “linked”<=
/span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>A polymer of
     deoxyribonucleotides - a double helix</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:11.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Information
flow - not quite right -- sometimes the info goes the other way!</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Central Dog=
ma
states that DNA → RNA → protein</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Retroviruse=
s are
an exception to this though… they flow RNA → DNA → RNA → protein</s=
pan></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&quot;Mad
Cow&quot; protein based disease (not a DNA based disease)- does not go thro=
ugh
DNA at all! causes proteins in our body to misfold</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Bacteria
Transformation - Avery and MacLeod</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>DNA contained/encoded whatever=
 it
     was for genes to get transferred or traits</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The purified DNA therefore con=
tains
     the genetic information responsible for transformation of R to S bacte=
ria</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>DNA can transform cells</span>=
</span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 3.4 (pg 94)</span></spa=
n></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:.1138in;top:4.018in;width:7.1972in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
The
Structure of DNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Nucleic acids are the genetic material </span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Nucleic Acids</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>(DNA and RNA) are the principal molecul=
es of
the cell and are the genetic material</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Purines
and Pyrimidines</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";color:blue'>2 kinds of nitrogenous=
 bases</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image00=
3.gif"
      width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span style=3D'position:relative;left:.1=
25in'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'> purines </span></span></li>
  <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embe=
d;
   margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
       left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>2 ring
       structures</span></span></li>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
       left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
       style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Adenine and Guanine</span></span=
></li>
  </ul>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image00=
3.gif"
      width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span style=3D'position:relative;left:.1=
25in'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'> pyrimidines</span></span></li>
  <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embe=
d;
   margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
       left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
       style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>1 single ring structure</span></=
span></li>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
       left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
       style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Thymine (DNA),<span
       style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Cytosine (DNA/RNA) and Uracil (=
RNA)</span></span></li>
  </ul>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image034.gif" width=3D399 height=3D5=
99></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Double helix with two major gr=
oves,
     DNA binding found in these groves</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Sugar-phosphate backbones on t=
he
     outside of the molecule</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The bases are on the inside,
     oriented such that hydrogen bonds are formed between purines and
     pyrimidines on opposite chains.</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>DNA and RNA are assembled from nucleotides with phosphodiester
bonds.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The phosphate group on the=
 5' end
(of the ribose or deoxyribose) of one nucleotide binds to the hydroxyl grou=
p on
the 3' end (of the ribose or deoxyribose) of the last nucleotide in the DNA=
 or
RNA chain</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image035.gif" width=3D279 height=3D4=
46></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The fact th=
at
there is a phosphate group on one end and then a hydroxyl group on the end =
of
the strand parallel to it shows that these two strands are different.</span=
></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:.1354in;top:20.7402in;width:7.5826in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-weight:
bold;font-size:12.0pt'>The Structure of Nucleotides </span><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>(8:00)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Pentose: 5 =
Carbon
Sugar</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image036.gif" width=3D432 height=3D3=
35></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>DNA and RNA are polymers of </=
span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highlight=
:yellow'>nucleotides</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>, which consist of purine and
     pyrimidine bases linked to phosphorylated sugars.</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>DNA contains two purines (aden=
ine
     and guanine) and two pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine)</span></span><=
/li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>RNA also contains adenine, gua=
nine,
     and cytosine but RNA contains uracil in place of thymine.</span></span=
></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The bases are linked to sugars
     (2'-deoxyribose in DNA, or ribose in RNA) to for </span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highlight=
:yellow'>nucleosides</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>.</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highlight=
:yellow'>Nucleotides
     </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>additionally cont=
ain
     one or more phosphate groups linked to the 5' carbon of nucleoside sug=
ars</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Nucleoside</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A Purine or
pyrimidine base linked to a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Nucleotide</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A phosphory=
lated
nucleoside</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The building
block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonde=
d to
a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>DNA is double stranded (with deoxyribose) and RNA is single stranded
(with a ribose)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'>DNA -
     deoxyribose sugar</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Deoxyribose</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Requires a =
primer</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>(2'-deoxyribose) The five carbon sugar found in DNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image037.=
gif"
width=3D232 height=3D150></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'>RNA -
     ribose sugar</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Ribose</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>The five carbon sugar found in RNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image038.=
gif"
width=3D219 height=3D141></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>linked to a
     nitrogenous base at the 1 carbon</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>with a phospha=
te
     group on the 5 carbon</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>Does not require a primer</span><=
/span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Figure 2.10, 2.11, 2.12</s=
pan></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><br>
Each tRNA is going to carry its own amino acid</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Nucleotides grow in the 5'=
 → 3'
direction, adding at the 3' end (hydroxyl)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Read in the=
 5' →
3' direction as well</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Oligonucleotides</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Small polym=
ers
containing only a few nucletides</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>AMP</span><=
/p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>GMP</span><=
/p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>TMP</span><=
/p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>CMP</span><=
/p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>UMP</span><=
/p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Structure
of DNA</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Phosphate s=
ugar
     backbone</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Held togeth=
er by
     phophodiester bonds</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-weight:
bold;font-size:12.0pt'>The double helix is held together by hydrogen bonds =
</span><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>(10:20)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>G always pairs with C, A always pairs with T in DNA</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image039.gif" width=3D269 height=3D3=
84></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>G-C</span></sp=
an></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>3 H bonds</sp=
an></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>A-T</span></sp=
an></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>2 H bonds</sp=
an><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> </span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
DNA
structure - space filling model</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
DNA -
antiparallel strands held together by hydrogen bonds</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 3.5<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-size:
12.0pt'>DNA replication - in detail </span><span style=3D'font-size:8.0pt'>=
(12:00)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>DNA and RNA are assembled in the 5' to 3' direction</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>If you know=
 one
strand of DNA you can always regenerate the other strand</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>When we clo=
ne
stuff we take advantage of this machinery to copy stuff</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>DNA replica=
ted in
the 5' → 3' direction</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
DNA
replication is semi-conservative</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>DNA is replicated in a semi-conservative manner</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-weight:bol=
d;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Figure =
3.6</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>DNA<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>                </span>5'
----------------------------<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>3'</=
span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Protein<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>N (amino) ---------------------------<=
span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>C (carboxyl)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-style:
italic;font-size:12.0pt'>Experimental evidence that DNA replication is
semi-conservative</span><span style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'> </span><span
style=3D'font-size:8.0pt'>(15:12)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-weight:bol=
d;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Figure =
3.7</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
continued</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-size:
12.0pt'>DNA and Protein are co-linear </span><span style=3D'font-size:8.0pt=
'>(17:05)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>The DNA sequence and the protein sequence for a gene are colinear</sp=
an></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-weight:bol=
d;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Figure =
3.8</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
RNA is
copied from DNA in a 5’--&gt;3’ direction (more in a later chapter!!)</=
span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Dissecting
the genetic code</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
The
genetic code is Redundant</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Nearly the =
same
in all organisms with a few exceptions</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Each
Amino acid is encoded by a set of 3 nucleotides (codon) on the mRNA - tRNA=
s</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Know how to=
 use
Table 3.1!</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Stop Codon</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Trigger the
ribosome to fall apart at the end of every codon sequence to stop making
protein</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Codons are =
groups
of 3 nucleotides that code for an amino acid</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Many codons=
 can
code for the same amino acid</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
carry
the correct amino acid (stay tuned!)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Frameshift
mutations</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Three readi=
ng
frames</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>If you don'=
t know
what strand is the coding strand there is a total of 6 different peptides f=
or
any DNA sequence.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>3 (3 different =
reading
frames) x 2 (double strand) =3D 6</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Figure 3.11!</span></span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Insertion or
deletion of one or 2 nucleotides</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Missense
mutation - movie</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Single point
mutation, <span style=3D'font-weight:bold'>change </span>of 1 nucleotide, <=
span
style=3D'font-weight:bold'>NOT an addition or deletion</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Nonesene
mutation –movie</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Termination=
 of
polypeptide synthesis at the effected codon, a type of a point mutation, re=
sult
of premature stop codon, if an addition or deletion causes a stop codon to =
be
inserted early</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Molecular
Techniques or more fun with DNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:.0104in;top:51.8277in;width:7.6145in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-weight:
bold;font-size:12.0pt'>Restriction Mapping </span><span style=3D'font-size:=
8.0pt'>(38:25)</span></span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>DNA can be cut=
 by
     restriction enzymes</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>restriction en=
zymes
     are like molecular scissors</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:black'><span style=3D'position:relative;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:11.0=
pt'>By
      recognizing certain specific sequences</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:black'><span style=3D'position:relative;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:11.0=
pt'>Palindromes
      because they read the same from either direction</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:black'><span style=3D'position:relative;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:11.0=
pt'>Written
      in 5' </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:1=
1.0pt'>→</span><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:11.0pt'>3' direction </=
span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>they cut at sp=
ecific
     sites</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:black'><span style=3D'position:relative;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>Single strand=
s,
      isolated from bacteria</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>sometimes they=
 leave
     sticky ends, sometimes blunt ends</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:black'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
>&nbsp;</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";color:black'>Re=
striction
     mapping can be used to tell if you generated mutation and to cut DNA f=
or
     cloning!</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";color:black'>Why
     would we want things that cut up DNA?</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:black'><span style=3D'position:relative;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>Restrictions
      enzymes restrict the entry of bacteriophage</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Each Restriction enzyme has a speci=
fic
site at which it cleaves</span></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:.1354in;top:55.0562in;width:7.4055in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Recombinant=
 DNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman"'><=
span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'>Recombinant DNA - movie </span><span
style=3D'font-size:8.0pt'>(42:34)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A host DNA,=
 for
example from a mammal is cut with an restriction endonuclease which recogni=
zes
a specific base sequence or recognition site, same endonucleases is used to=
 cut
a foreign DNA from a different organism.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> 
</span>If there are multiple recognition sites on the DNA it will be cut in=
to
pieces of various lengths.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>If the=
 cut
host and foreign DNA are then mixed in presence of DNA ligase some of them =
will
splice to form recombinant DNA.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>A=
 host
DNA with a segment of foreign DNA incorporated.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Staggered e=
nds =3D
sticky end because they have an overlap or 2-4 nucleotides that can hydrogen
bond to 2-4 nucleotides on the other side</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Vectors:</s=
pan></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Carries som=
ething
and transmits it to something else, mosquitos are vectors of West Nile Viru=
s,
DNA plasmids cab be vectors, viruses can be vectors if they pick of DNA</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Cloning
- sticky end ligation</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-style:
italic;font-size:12.0pt'>Restriction Maps of Adenovirus and Bacteriophage <=
/span><span
style=3D'font-size:12.5pt'>λ</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
How to
clone a piece of DNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Campbell Ac=
tivity
20C on CD-Rom</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>We can use =
the
techniques of DNA technology to recombine and copy <a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
01\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>genes</span></a>. A <a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
01\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>restriction enzyme</span></a> is used to cut open a <a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
01\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>plasmid</span></a>, a small circular DNA molecule obta=
ined
from a bacterium. The plasmid serves as a <a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
01\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>cloning</span></a><a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
01\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'> </span></a><a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
01\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>vector</span></a>. The restriction enzyme cuts only at=
 a
certain DNA base sequence, called a restriction site. The same enzyme is us=
ed
to cut up DNA obtained from a human cell. </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The <a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
02\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>restriction enzyme</span></a> produces DNA fragments t=
hat
have matching sticky ends that join by complementary base pairing. An enzyme
called DNA ligase forges <a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
02\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>covalent bonds</span></a> that join human and <a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
02\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>plasmid</span></a> DNA, creating recombinant DNA. The =
human <a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
02\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>gene</span></a> is inserted in the middle of the plasm=
id
lacZ gene. The plasmid also carries a gene for resistance to the antibiotic
ampicillin. </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The human <a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
03\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>gene</span></a> must be cloned to produce copies for u=
se or
study. A bacterium is induced to take up the recombinant <a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
03\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>plasmid</span></a> from the surrounding solution in a
process called transformation. (This isn't as clear-cut as it sounds. Some
bacteria do not take up the plasmid, and some take up plasmids whose lacZ g=
enes
lack the inserted human DNA.) </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:ari=
al'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>A
bacterium is placed on a growth medium. It replicates the </span><a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
04\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;color:blue'>plasmid</span></a><span style=3D'font=
-size:
10.0pt'> at the same time as its own DNA. Its descendants form a clone of
bacteria that all have copies of the recombinant plasmid. The ampicillin in=
 the
medium limits growth only to plasmid-containing cells, but which cells have
plasmids with a human </span><a
href=3D"file:///F:\medialib\assets\interactivemedia\activities\H20\H2003\st=
04\gt01.html"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;color:blue'>gene</span></a><span style=3D'font-si=
ze:10.0pt'>?
Bacteria without human genes have intact lacZ genes; this allows them to br=
eak
down a substance in the medium that stains their colonies blue. Thus, the
bacteria with human genes are in the colorless colonies</span><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>. </span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>Her Discussion at 48:20!</=
span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>2 kinds of
vectors</span></p>

<ol type=3D1 style=3D'margin-left:1.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>=
<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>That has been cut and has been
     self-ligated without the insert DNA being put in</span></li>
 <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>=
<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Vector of DNA that has had for=
eign
     DNA inserted in the middle of the lax z coding region and so this gene
     will not work, non-functional lax z gene</span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The only ba=
cteria
you see growing are those bacteria carrying a plasmid</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The ones
containing a plasmid may have picked up an insert and therefore will be whi=
te</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Or.. It may=
 not
contain an insert and the protein will be made the colony will be blue</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Of the colo=
nies
that are white they could have a bunch of different pieces of it </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Cloning
- some more</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Selection
of E.coli carrying recombinant plasmids</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:.1041in;top:65.2576in;width:7.427in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-weight:bold;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>Chapter 3 Day 2</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Phage
Library</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>You have one gene or sequence =
of
     amino acids and you know the sequence but don't know what it does or w=
here
     it is located in relation to the entire genome</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Isolate one strand of DNA then=
 use
     restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into pieces</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Each piece now contains a diff=
erent
     sequence</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Take the mixture of pieces and=
 add
     them to vector DNA (phage DNA)</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Each piece now ends up in a
     different bacteria phage</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Each piece/sequence is kind of=
 like
     a book, each chunk of DNA as a story</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>All the different sequences as=
 a
     collection can be considered a library</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Libraries are collections of p=
ieces
     of DNA and contain all the sequences contained in a genome and are cal=
led
     a genomic library</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yel=
low;
     mso-highlight:yellow'>Figure 3.19, Figure 3.20,</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Screening
a Genomic DNA phage library - Plaque Lifts</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yel=
low;
     mso-highlight:yellow'><span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Figure=
 3.31</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Reverse
Transcriptase - from Retroviruses</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>HIV good exam=
ple</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>Have an RNA g=
enome
     that gets into the host cell and the RNA is copied into DNA</span></sp=
an></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>Information f=
lows
     from RNA → DNA →RNA → protein</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>The enzyme th=
at
     does this is reverse transcriptase</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>Reverse
     transcriptase is carried as a protein linked to the RNA is the virus
     particle, primed to do its thing</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>Integrated in=
to the
     host DNA as a provirus, viral DNA incorporated into the host cell that=
 at
     any time can make virus or not, stability incorporate into the host DNA
     and if it gets there its not coming out, and only comes out through the
     lytic cycle.</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
HIV
Mechanism of Action (movie)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
How
Retroviruses work</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image040.=
gif"
width=3D443 height=3D497></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>cDNA - Complementary DNA made by reverse transcriptio=
n of
mRNA</span></span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Can't replicate RNA by itself!
     (20:00)</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>How to Identify the gene from =
mRNA
     must first convert to DNA </span><span style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-=
family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Figure 3.18</span></span></li>
 <ol type=3D1 style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Use reverse transcriptase iso=
lated
      from a retrovirus</span></li>
  <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Make sure you have a primer b=
ecause
      all DNA polymerase needs a primer to copy RNA to DNA (retroviruses ha=
ve
      their own primer)</span></li>
  <li value=3D3 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>mRNA (poly A tail at the end)=
 is
      then primed by Oligo-dt</span></li>
  <li value=3D4 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Then reverse transcriptase wi=
ll
      copy the first strand of DNA off of that (complementary to RNA)</span=
></li>
  <li value=3D5 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Add another polymerase which =
uses
      other stuff as the primer and then makes the 2nd strand of cDNA</span=
></li>
  <li value=3D6 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>We now have double stranded
      complementary DNA that is complementary to mRNA</span></li>
  <li value=3D7 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>But we have blunt ends, which=
 does
      not clone easily, so we add linkers that has a restriction site in it=
</span></li>
  <li value=3D8 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Clone it into a piece of DNA
      (plasmid or bacteriaphage)</span></li>
  <li value=3D9 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Transfer to E-coli and then d=
o a
      screen to see what gene we are interested in</span></li>
 </ol>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-size:11.0p=
t'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-weight:bold;fon=
t-family:
palatino'>Making cDNA</span><span style=3D'font-family:palatino'>. Generati=
on of
cDNAs can also be done by a wide variety of processes, but, in virtually all
cases, cDNA is generated by the enzyme </span><a
href=3D"http://www-users.med.cornell.edu/%7Ejawagne/dictionary_for_logic_an=
d_e.html#R-dictionary"><span
style=3D'font-family:palatino;color:blue'>reverse</span></a><a
href=3D"http://www-users.med.cornell.edu/%7Ejawagne/dictionary_for_logic_an=
d_e.html#R-dictionary"><span
style=3D'font-family:palatino;color:blue'> </span></a><a
href=3D"http://www-users.med.cornell.edu/%7Ejawagne/dictionary_for_logic_an=
d_e.html#R-dictionary"><span
style=3D'font-family:palatino;color:blue'>transcriptase* (RT)</span></a><sp=
an
style=3D'font-family:palatino'> which has the ability to use the informatio=
n in
an RNA to generate a complementary DNA. Thus, reverse transcriptase is a
RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. Like all DNA polymerases it cannot initiate
synthesis de novo but depends on the presence of a primer. Since many mRNAs
have a poly-A tail at the 3' end (see </span><a
href=3D"http://www-users.med.cornell.edu/%7Ejawagne/dictionary_for_logic_an=
d_e.html#P-dictionary"><span
style=3D'font-family:palatino;color:blue'>polyadenylation*</span></a><span
style=3D'font-family:palatino'>), oligo-dT is frequently used to prime DNA
synthesis (it is also possible, and frequently essential, to generate cDNAs=
 by
using either random primers or primers designed to amplify a specific mRNA).
Once the initial cDNA has been generated it is generally necessary to produ=
ce a
second strand of DNA. Again, there are many strategies for doing this, but a
convenient mechanism involves exposure of the DNA/RNA hybrid to a combinati=
on
of RNAase-H and DNA polymerase. RNAase-H has the ability to cause single-st=
randed
nicks in the RNA, and DNA polymerase can then use these single-stranded nic=
ks
to initiate &quot; second strand&quot; DNA synthesis. This two-step procedu=
re
has been optimized to maximize fidelity and length of cDNAs.</span><span
style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> </span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman"'><=
span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;
font-size:12.0pt'>cDNA Library construction</span><span style=3D'font-size:=
11.0pt'>
</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Why
cDNA libraries?</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>cDNA is =
made
from mRNA using reverse transcriptase</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>This mea=
ns
ONLY genes being expressed in a tissue will be represented by mRNA</span></=
span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";font-=
size:
12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>molecules<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Also, cD=
NA’s
contain the sequence that a ribosome would translate into protein</span></s=
pan></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>NO intro=
ns
(we’ll cover these later)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Why do all =
this?</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Human genome is very complex a=
nd
     will have 90% of which you know you don't want in a genomic DNA</span>=
</span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Increase your odds of getting =
the
     sequence you want by only looking at genes that are being made in the
     tissues you know where the genes you are interested in being expressed=
.</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>cDNA contain sequences that the
     ribosomes will translate into protein (no introns)</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Increase ours odds of finding =
the
     sequence we are interesting in and having it being of use</span></span=
></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Cloning
REALLY Big Pieces of DNA - Cosmid Libraries</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 3.19=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Also PAC</s=
pan></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
YAC
(yeast artificial chromosome) libraries</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Why do this=
?</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The gene fo=
r the
protein for which you are interested may be big and not fit into a plasmid =
thus
need to do other methoids</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'text-decoration:underline'>Temperature sensitive mutation: </span>=
(pg
124)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Mutation in=
 a
protein that causes the protein to unfold at high temperatures</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>BAC</span><=
/p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Small DNA v=
ia
phage and or plasmid vector</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-size:
12.0pt'>PCR the movie </span><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>(38:16)</span=
></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Polymerase
Chain Reaction</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>How to a=
mplify
a specific gene</span></span></p>

<ol type=3D1 style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>=
<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Heating</span></li>
 <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>=
<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Add primers (hybridization)</s=
pan></li>
 <li value=3D3 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
     vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>=
<span
     style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>DNA synthesis (DNA polymerase)=
</span></li>
</ol>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Have to kno=
w the
sequence at the ends in order to choose the correct primers.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
PCR
continued</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
So
what do you do once you have cloned a piece of DNA???</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";font-=
size:
11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Try to get the nucleo=
tide
sequence</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Sequenci=
ng </span><span
style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:10.0pt'>(43:41)</span></span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Southern=
 Blot
(DNA probed with the gene)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Northern=
 Blot
(RNA probed with the gene)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Express =
RNA in
</span><span style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-=
size:
12.0pt'>E.coli </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:1=
2.0pt'>as
a fusion protein</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Make an
antibody to fusion protein - Western Blots</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Gene
disruptions - homologous recombination</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Transgen=
ic
animals/plants</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
DNA
sequencing - dideoxy chain termination method</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 3.21=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Not done th=
at
much anymore</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
DNA
sequencing continued</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
DNA
sequencing - Using Fluorescent Dyes instead of Radioactivity</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>More common=
 now
than gel</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Detection
of Fluorescent Products</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chemically =
using
DNA polymerase figure out the sequence of DNA that you have cloned</span></=
p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Expression
of foreign genes in E.coli -fusion proteins</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes Symbol";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Insert the =
coding
strand that you have sequenced (hopefully cDNA) into E-coli</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>How to m=
ake
LOTS of a gene product</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes Symbol";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 3.23=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
What
can you do with a fusion protein?</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Use it f=
or </span><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>=
in
vitro </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>st=
udies
of the protein you are interested in (by isolating gram quantities)</span><=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Use it to
generate antibodies to the protein you are interested in</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Something e=
lse
you can do with a gene you are interested in</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
DNA
melting and reanealing we take advantage of this in doing Southerns and
Northerns</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Making
a DNA probe - for blots</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Have double
stranded DNA, heat to 95º and melt/denature.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:ye=
s'> 
</span>DNA now opens up and is available to H bond to something else.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Add a stretch of DNA that you know (ge=
ne you
have isolated) lable it with a radioactive tag, then it will only base pair
with the one it matches.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span></span><=
/p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 3.25=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-size:
12.0pt'>Southern Blots </span><span style=3D'font-size:8.0pt'>(55:47)</span=
></span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>A way to determine the size of=
 the
     piece of DNA you are looking at and what is around it.</span></span></=
li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Take genomic DNA and cut it wi=
th a
     restriction enzyme (2-3) run it on a argerus gel and transport the DNA=
 by
     capillary blotting to a piece of filter paper to which has DNA on it.<=
span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Have DNA fragments at different b=
ands,
     then add NaOH soultion to denature the DNA.<span
     style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Add your probe which is going to =
only
     bind to the strand that it is complementary to; one of the fragment ba=
nds
     then can be observed on X-ray film.</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 3.26</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-size:
12.0pt'>Northern Blot </span><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>(58:10)</span=
></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Just like
Southern BUT instead of DNA you use RNA</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><sp=
an
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida =
Sans Unicode"'>◗</span><span
style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats'> </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Time=
s New Roman"'>Gather
RNA from several different tissues </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times=
 Symbol"'>RNA
is separated on a Formaldehyde gel to keep everything linear</span></span><=
/p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Can be u=
sed to
determine</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";color=
:blue'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-size:14.0pt'>=
 </span><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>if a gene is being expressed in a tissue</span><=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";color=
:blue'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-size:14.0pt'>=
 </span><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>the size of the mRNA/coding region</span></span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";color=
:blue'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>=
 </span><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>very useful if you only have a small gene fragme=
nt and
don’t know the size of the protein</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";font-=
size:
10.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>encoded by=
 the
gene</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";color=
:blue'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>=
 </span><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>3 bases/codon so if mRNA is 900 bases long the p=
rotein
should be less than 300 amino acids or</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";font-=
size:
10.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>about 30 k=
Da (an
amino acid =3D about 110 Da)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Western
Blot analysis</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Proteins=
 are
separated by molecular weight</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>transfer=
red to
nitrocellulose</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Western
blots continued</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>The blot=
 is
probed with an antibody to a specific protein</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";color=
:blue'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>=
 </span><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>perhaps made to a fusion protein????</span></spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>A second=
ary
antibody is used to visualize the band</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";color=
:blue'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-size:14.0pt'>=
 </span><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>radioactivity</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";color=
:blue'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-size:14.0pt'>=
 </span><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>enzyme linked to antibody</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes Symbol";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 3.29=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>By having t=
he DNA
sequenced or even part of it sequenced you can find out…</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Where the protein is made</spa=
n></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>What tissues it is expressed i=
n</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Size of it</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Identify it in a cell lysase o=
r in a
     cell</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Immunoprecipitation</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>Isolatio=
n of a
protein from a complex mixture using an antibody</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes Symbol";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Radioactive
labeled proteins</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Ways
to determine gene function (what the gene is doing!)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><sp=
an
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida =
Sans Unicode"'>◗</span><span
style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats'> </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Time=
s Symbol"'>Transfection
of cells in culture</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes Symbol";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Put the
protein/gene back into the cell and see what it does</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><sp=
an
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida =
Sans Unicode"'>◗</span><span
style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats'> </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Time=
s Symbol"'>Generation
of transgenic animals</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Animals that
carry a foreign gene</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><sp=
an
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida =
Sans Unicode"'>◗</span><span
style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats'> </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Time=
s Symbol"'>Generation
of transgenic plants</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes Symbol";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Plants carr=
ying a
foreign gene</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><sp=
an
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida =
Sans Unicode"'>◗</span><span
style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats'> </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Time=
s Symbol"'>Generation
of a series of mutants</span></span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>deletion mutag=
enesis</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>site-directed
     mutagenesis</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><sp=
an
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida =
Sans Unicode"'>◗</span><span
style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats'> </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Time=
s Symbol"'>Disruption
of the gene (get rid of the gene)</span></span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>homologous
     recombination</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol"'>antisense</spa=
n></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";color=
:blue'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-size:14.0pt'>=
 </span><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>microinjection - mutant fusion protein or antibo=
dy</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Transfection
of Tissue Culture cells</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 3.33=
 - can
ask yourself what does this cell now do that it didn't do before</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Retroviruses
as vectors</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 3.34=
 -
replication deficient that can only transfer DNA to one cell and won't make
virus, gotten rid of viral sequence.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </s=
pan></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Have mechan=
isms
for getting the<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>DNA incorporated =
into
the genome at very high frequencies</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Generation
of Transgenic Mice by micro-injection</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 3.35=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Transgenic
Mice - using ES cells</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 3.36=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Transgenic
mice (ES cells) continued</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Transformation
of Plants</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Transformation
in Plants cont.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
One
way to do deletion mutagenesis</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Site
Directed Mutagenesis</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Homologous
Recombination</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Switching
out an endogenous gene with a mutagenized gene</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Antisense
disruption of gene expression</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
Gene
disruption by Microinjection</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:blue'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>=
The
NCBI database</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>How to r=
ead a
data file</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";color=
:blue'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-size:14.0pt'>=
 </span><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>see handout</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";font-=
size:
11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Does not have huge am=
ounts
of information on environmental issues or ecology</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times Symbol";font-=
size:
11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Lots of information a=
bout
medicine, genetics, development and very up to date!</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;color:blue'><span style=3D'posit=
ion:
relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";
font-size:13.0pt'>◗</span><span style=3D'font-family:ZapfDingbats;font-si=
ze:13.0pt'>
</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Symbol";font-size:12.0pt'>we all h=
ave
access to NCBI through the internet - courtesy of Al Gore - REALLY!</span><=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

</div>

</div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<div style=3D'position:relative;height:4.0in'>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;width:7.125in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Definitiions</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Gene:</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ari=
al;
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A segment o=
f DNA
that encodes a polypeptide chain or an RNA molecule</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image041.=
gif"
width=3D533 height=3D41></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image042.=
gif"
width=3D517 height=3D46></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image043.=
gif"
width=3D545 height=3D71></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

</div>

</div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<div>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:14.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chapter 4 The Organization and Sequ=
ence
of Cellular Genomes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Tuesday, Ju=
ly 05,
2005</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>4:47 PM</sp=
an></p>

</div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<div style=3D'position:relative;height:108.268in'>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;top:0in;width:9.6666in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic'>Chapter 4 </span>Organization of the Genome</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Intro</span=
></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The initial
applications of recombinant DNA were directed toward the isolation and anal=
ysis
of individual genes.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Genome size=
s</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>The genome of Eukaryotic cells contains a lot of DNA that does not co=
de
for a gene product (protein, rRNA or tRNA).<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'=
> 
</span>In higher eukaryotes only about 3% of the genome codes for proteins<=
/span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span style=3D'position:relative;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image044.gif" width=3D344 height=3D3=
88></span></p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-=
size:
10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 4.1</span></p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-=
size:
11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The genomes of most eukaryotes=
 are
     larger and more complex that those of prokaryotes</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#3366FF'>However, the gen=
ome
     size of many eukaryotes does not appear to be related to genetic
     complexity</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Lilies and salamanders have m=
ore
      DNA (amount) but are not 100x more complex</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Resolved by discovery that the
     genomes of most eukaryotic cells contain not only functional genes but
     large amounts of DNA sequence that </span><span style=3D'font-style:it=
alic;
     font-family:"Times New Roman"'>do not</span><span style=3D'font-family=
:"Times New Roman"'>
     code for protein (introns)</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#3366FF'>Much of the comp=
lexity
     of eukaryotic genome thus results from the abundance of several differ=
ent
     types of noncoding sequences, which constitute most of the DNA of high=
er
     eukaryotic cell and the larger number of genes.</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Structure of
Eukaryotic Gene</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'font-weight:bold'>Gene</span>: a segment of DNA that is expressed =
to
yield a functional product, which may be either an RNA (e.g. ribosomal and
transfer RNA's) or a polypeptide.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Genes often contain introns which must be removed (spliced out) of the
RNA before its product - protein, rRNA, or tRNA - can be made (protein) or =
is
functional (rRNA, tRNA)</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image045.=
gif"
width=3D419 height=3D206></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 4.2<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Gaps at 5' end and 3' end beca=
use it
     is a eukaryotic gene</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>If a prokaryote gene all the =
genes
      may be smashed together</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Most </span><=
span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>prokaryote genes do not have i=
ntrons</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Introns</spa=
n><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> are sections of </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DDeoxyribose+nucleic+acid&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><sp=
an
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>DNA</span></a><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> within a </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DGene&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>gene</span></a><sp=
an
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> that do not encode part of t=
he </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DProtein&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>protein</span></a>=
<span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> that the gene produces, and =
are </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DSplicing+%28genetics%29&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>spliced</span></a>=
<span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> out of the </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DMessenger+RNA&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>mRNA</span></a><sp=
an
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> that is </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DTranscription&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>transcribed</span>=
</a><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> from the gene before it is
      exported from the </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DCell+nucleus&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>cell nucleus</span=
></a><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>. Introns exist mainly (but n=
ot
      only) in </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DEukaryote&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>eukaryotic</span><=
/a><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DCell+%28biology%29&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>cells</span></a><s=
pan
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>. The regions of a gene that =
remain
      in the spliced mRNA are called </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DExon&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>exons</span></a><s=
pan
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>.</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Introns sometimes allow for <=
/span><a
      href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D222=
2&amp;dekey=3DAlternative+splicing&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue'>alternative splici=
ng</span></a><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> of a gene, so that several
      different proteins that share some sections in common can be produced
      from a single gene. The control of mRNA splicing, and hence of which
      alternative is produced, is performed by a wide variety of signal
      molecules. Introns also sometimes contain &quot;old code,&quot; secti=
ons
      of a gene that were probably once translated into protein but which a=
re
      now discarded.</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Some intron=
s such
as Group I and Group II introns are actually <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DRibozyme&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>ribozymes</span></a> that are capable of <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DCatalysis&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>catalyzing</span></a> their own splicing out of the pr=
imary
RNA transcript. They remove themselves on their own.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The amount =
of
intron DNA varies widely between <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DSpecies&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>species</span></a>. The <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DPufferfish&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>pufferfish</span></a> species <span style=3D'font-styl=
e:italic'>Fugu
rubripes</span> has a very low amount of intron DNA, whereas related species
have higher amounts. Introns are not to be confused with <a
href=3D"http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=3D4&amp;dsid=3D2222&amp;=
dekey=3DJunk+DNA&amp;gwp=3D8&amp;curtab=3D2222_1"><span
style=3D'color:blue'>junk DNA</span></a>, which is all DNA without known fu=
nction
that is not part of a gene.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Identificat=
ion of
introns</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>How many introns and extrons a=
 gene
     has is highly variable</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The entire gene is transcribed=
 to
     yield a long RNA molecule and the introns are then removed by splicing=
, so
     only exons are included in the mRNA</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>3' end used for regulation of =
mRNA</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Duplex of D=
NA w/
RNA – adenovirus</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in'><span style=3D'position:relative;
left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image046.gif" width=3D511 height=3D5=
31></span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Took adenovirus DNA, made it s=
ingle
     stranded, then added it to mRNA from the adenovirus, and found consist=
ent
     loops</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>First indication that mRNA is =
not an
     exact duplicate of the genome and that there were these integrating
     sequences</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Adenovirus mRNAs do not hybrid=
ize to
     only a single region of viral DNA</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Instead a single mRNA molecule
     hybridizes to several separated regions of the viral genome</span></sp=
an></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#3366FF'>Thus the adenovi=
rus
     mRNA does not correspond to an uninterrupted transcript of the template
     DNA; rather the mRNA is assembled from several distinct blocks of
     sequences that originated from different parts of the viral DNA</span>=
<span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'> </span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Why have in=
trons
at all?</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image047.gif" width=
=3D21
     height=3D21>&nbsp;<span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt;background:lim=
e;
     mso-highlight:lime'>Introns may be evolutionary remains of formerly
     important sequences or from retroviruses</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Reminiscent<span
      style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>of retroviruses that have been
      integrated into the genome</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#3366FF'>Play roles in
      controlling gene expression</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image048.gif" width=
=3D21
     height=3D21>&nbsp;<span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
     style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0=
pt;
     background:fuchsia;mso-highlight:fuchsia'>Exon shuffling</span></span>=
</li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>Process by w=
hich
      the evolution of proteins with multifunctional domains could be
      accelerated. If exons each encoded individual functional domains, the=
n </span><a
      href=3D"http://www.mblab.gla.ac.uk/%7Ejulian/dict2.cgi?introns"><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt;color:blue'>i=
ntrons</span></a><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'> would allow=
 their
      recombination to form new functional proteins with minimal risk of da=
mage
      to the sequences encoding the functional parts. </span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Evolutionary a good thing bec=
ause
      of exon shuffling</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#3366FF'>Introns played =
an
      important role in evolution by facilitating recombination between
      protein-coding regions (exons) of different genes; a process known as
      exon shuffling</span></span></li>
  <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embe=
d;
   margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Exons frequently encode
       functionally distinct protein domains, so recombination between intr=
ons
       of different genes would result in new genes containing novel
       combinations of protein coding sequence.</span></span></li>
  </ul>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This is for exons that code f=
or a
      particular domain of a protein…this is not true for all exons</span=
></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#3366FF'>New genes can be
      formed by recombination between intron sequences</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>sometimes int=
rons
     fall between functional domains of proteins</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>this may give=
 the
     cell a selective advantage</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>the sequences
     encoding one domain of the protein may be duplicated and added to a
     different gene</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>resulting in =
a new
     gene--&gt;protein</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>if evolutiona=
rily
     GOOD will be come fixed in the population </span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Exon shuffling would have then
      played an important role in the further evolution of genes in higher
      eukaryotes but would not account for the initial assembly of
      protein-coding sequence prior to the evolutionary divergence of
      prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Is exon shu=
ffling
the real reason why we have introns?</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Real answer=
s is
probably we don't really know where they came from or why</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Structure o=
f an
mRNA</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>5’ Untransl=
ated
     Region (UTR)<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>     </span></span></=
span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>UTR =3D untranslated region</=
span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Where ribosomal subunits will=
 bind </span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Especially small ribosomal<sp=
an
      style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>will bind to 5' untranslated reg=
ion</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Move down to
where imitator AUG codon is</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>May contain
     regulatory elements</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image049.=
gif"
width=3D515 height=3D294></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 4.4<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>3’ UTR</spa=
n></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>After Stop codon</span></span=
></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Ribosomes fall of</span></spa=
n></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>PolyA+ Tail</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12=
.0pt'>Beginning
     of mRNA does not correspond to the beginning of the protein, same with=
 the
     end</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Bunch of sequence that other
      proteins interact with for regulation</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Also does not get shift out of
      nucleus</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Protein coding
     region is in between the two</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Gene Famili=
es and
Pseudogenes</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>One of the reasons we have a l=
ot of
     DNA is not just for introns, a lot of our DNA has been duplicated over
     time</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Some sequences of DNA are pres=
ent in
     multiple copies and therefore reassociated more rapidly that those
     sequences that were represented only once per genome</span></span></li>
</ul>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Over evolutio=
nary
     time scales many genes have been duplicated</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>With time, their sequences di=
verge
      due to mutations </span></span></li>
  <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embe=
d;
   margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The sequence is going to cha=
nge
       from the original gene, mutation occurs and a new gene is created?</=
span></span></li>
  </ul>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>These are Gene families they =
encode
      related proteins with related structures and functions</span></span><=
/li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highlight=
:yellow'>Pseudogenes
     </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>look like duplica=
te
     copies of a gene, BUT they are missing all or part of the promoter </s=
pan></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>SO NO protein is expressed</sp=
an></span></li>
 <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Increase the size of eukaryot=
ic
      genomes with out making a functional genetic contribution</span></spa=
n></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>or they contain mutations that
     prevent the expression of functional protein</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Globin Gene
Family</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>During evolution genes are sometimes copied.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>This is one way of getting more of a p=
rotein
expressed at a single time.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The c=
opied
genes accumulate mutations with time (evolutionary scale time) and may resu=
lt
in the copies genes encoding related proteins which have a different functi=
on,
activity, or time of expression.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>=
(see
the example in the text of globin genes) These copied, related genes are ca=
lled
&quot;gene families&quot;</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 4.9<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image050.=
gif"
width=3D619 height=3D305></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Text Below:=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image003.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:yellow;
mso-highlight:yellow'>Gene Family</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>A group of
related genes that have arisen by duplication of common ancestor</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Repetitive =
DNA
sequences </span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>2 populations=
 of
     DNA </span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>repetitive -
     anneals quickly</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>non-repetitiv=
e -
     anneals more slowly </span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Actually we=
 only
have about 30,000 genes. Our DNA contains lots of repeats! </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Satellite D=
NA -
some of that non-coding DNA repetitive stuff</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Simple sequence repeats</span>=
</span></li>
 <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Consists of tandem arrays of =
up to
      thousands of copies of short sequences (1-500 nucleotides)\</span></s=
pan></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Can be separated by equilibri=
um
      centrifugation fig. 4.7 (see below)</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relati=
ve;
      left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Simple Seq=
uence
      DNA are not transcribed and don not convey functional genetic materia=
l</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Equilibrium
     Centrifugation of </span><span style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:=
"Times New Roman";
     font-size:12.0pt'>Drosophila </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times =
New Roman";
     font-size:12.0pt'>DNA</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Main band at =
1.701
     g/ml</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>“Satellite=
 bands
     at 1.705, 1.687, 1.672 g/ml</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>AT-rich simple
     repeats 5-200 bp long</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>SINES, LINE=
S </span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Scattered throughout the genome
     rather that being clustered in tandem repeats</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Major contributor to genome si=
ze</span></span></li>
</ul>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0=
pt'>Sines
     </span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
      style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>short interspersed elements about=
 10% of
      genome </span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>300 bp long Alu sequences the=
 best
      example </span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Are transcribed into RNA but =
they
      do not encode proteins and their functions are unknown</span></span><=
/li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0=
pt'>Lines
     </span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
      style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>long interspersed elements </span=
></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>L1 6000 bp long, 500,000/geno=
me</span></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Transcribed into and some enc=
ode
      proteins but their function in cell physiology is not known</span></s=
pan></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Both Alu (SIN=
E) and
     LI (SINE) are transposable elements (transposons)</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Capable of moving to different
      sites in genomic DNA</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Transposase an
     enzyme helps the transposon jump around in the genome</span></span></l=
i>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Both SINES and
     LINES are retrotransposons</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Their transposition is mediat=
ed by
      reverse transcriptasezasd</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>DNA is contained in structures called chromosomes</span></span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The genome of prokaryotes are
     contained in single chromosomes, which are usually circular DNA molecu=
les</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The genomes of eukaryotes are
     composed of multiple chromosomes, each containing a linear molecule of=
 DNA</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Although the numbers and sizes=
 of
     chromosomes vary considerably between different species, their basic
     structure is the same in all eukaryotes</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The DNA of eukaryotic cells is
     tightly bound to small basic proteins (histone) that package the DNA i=
n an
     orderly way in the cell nucleus</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Movie of
Chromosome Structure</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chromatin -=
 Wound
up DNA on a nucleosome core particle</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Transcription=
ally
     active</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'>The complexes between eukaryotic DNA and proteins are called =
</span><span
      style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Ro=
man";
      background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>chromatin</span><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";background:yellow;mso-highligh=
t:
      yellow'>, which typically contains twice as much protein as DNA.</spa=
n></span></li>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The major proteins of chromat=
in are
      the histones</span></span></li>
  <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embe=
d;
   margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Histones are small proteins
       containing a high proportion of basic amino acids (arginine and lysi=
ne)
       that facilitate binding to the negatively charged DNA molecules</spa=
n></span></li>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>There are five major types of
       histones called H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4, which are very similar amo=
ng
       different species of eukaryotes</span></span></li>
  </ul>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image051.=
gif"
width=3D586 height=3D329></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>So why care=
 about
chromatin packing?</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>If the DNA wa=
sn’t
     properly packaged, it would be a mess during division - think of tryin=
g to
     separate a bunch of thread without breaking any</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'=
>Turns
     out the regulation of DNA packaging by histones is a very important pa=
rt
     of </span><span style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-style:italic;font-famil=
y:
     "Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'>regulating gene
     expression</span><span style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times Ne=
w Roman";
     font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'> </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
     font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'>- what genes get turned on, in which
     cells, and when.</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Amino Acid
Composition of Histones - positively charged amino acids interact w/ negati=
vely
charged DNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chromatin
structure - see nucleosomes - beads on a string</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Agarose gel
electrophoresis of chromatin after cleavage </span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Treat chromat=
in
     with micrococcal nuclease - an enzyme that cuts DNA</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Run on an aga=
rose
     gel </span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>a “ladder=
 of DNA
     protected from digestion by nucleosome core proteins – histones</spa=
n></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 4.11c *</span></span><=
/li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Structure o=
f a
chromatosome (has H1) </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Figure 4.12=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chromatin
Structure</span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The basic structural subunit of
     chromatin is the nucleosome</span></span></li>
</ul>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image047.gif" width=
=3D21
     height=3D21>&nbsp;<span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt;background:lim=
e;
     mso-highlight:lime'>In non-dividing cells (Interphase), DNA is package=
d by
     histone particles in to 10 nm filaments, 30 nm filaments, or
     heterochromatin</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Euchromatin</span></span></li>
  <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embe=
d;
   margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>&quot;true&quot; DNA, what y=
our
       DNA looks like during interphase </span></span></li>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman";background:l=
ime;
       mso-highlight:lime'>10 nm </span></span></li>
   <ul type=3Dsquare style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:e=
mbed;
    margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
    <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:4;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-=
align:
        middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125=
in'><span
        style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Can be actively transcribed=
</span></span></li>
    <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:4;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-=
align:
        middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125=
in'><span
        style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>During this period of the c=
ell
        cycle, genes are transcribed and the DNA is replicated in preparati=
on
        for cell division</span></span></li>
    <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:4;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-=
align:
        middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125=
in'><span
        style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>During interphase most of t=
he
        chromatin (called </span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roma=
n";
        background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>euchromatin</span><span
        style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>) is relatively decongested=
 and
        distributed throughout the nucleus (30 nm)</span></span></li>
    <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:em=
bed;
     margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
     <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:5;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical=
-align:
         middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.12=
5in'><span
         style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>During this period of the =
cell
         cycle, genes are transcribed and the DNA is replicated in preparat=
ion
         of cell division</span></span></li>
    </ul>
   </ul>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman";background:l=
ime;
       mso-highlight:lime'>30 nm</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times Ne=
w Roman";
       background:lime;mso-highlight:lime'> </span><span style=3D'font-fami=
ly:
       "Times New Roman"'>more tightly wound-up</span></span></li>
   <ul type=3Dsquare style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:e=
mbed;
    margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
    <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:4;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-=
align:
        middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125=
in'><span
        style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Not transcribitally active<=
/span></span></li>
    <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:4;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-=
align:
        middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125=
in'><span
        style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>RNA polymerase can not get =
in</span></span></li>
   </ul>
  </ul>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-weight:bold;font-family:"Times New Roman";background:li=
me;
      mso-highlight:lime'>Heterochromatin</span></span></li>
  <ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embe=
d;
   margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>10% of interphase chromatin<=
/span></span></li>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Highly condensed state that
       resembles the chromatin cells undergoing mitosis</span></span></li>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Not Transciptionally Inactiv=
e</span></span></li>
   <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-a=
lign:
       middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'><span
       style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Contains highly repeated DNA
       sequences, such as those present at centromeres and telomeres</span>=
</span></li>
  </ul>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'=
>Genes
     that are actively transcribed are in a more decondensed state that mak=
es
     the DNA more accessible to the transcription machinery</span></span></=
li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Euchromatin</=
span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Can be active=
ly
     transcribed</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>10 nm </span>=
</span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 4.13</span></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>30 nm more ti=
ghtly
     wound-up</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>DNA structu=
re
during Mitosis</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>In dividing cells (Mitotic), DNA is tighltly wound (condensed) into
chromosomes (≈10,000 x more tightly wound) so they can be transferred to
daughter cells</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chromosomes
during Mitosis highly condensed </span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'=
>Not
     transciptionally active</span></span></li>
 <ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-al=
ign:
      middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'><span
      style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Figure 4.18</span></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image052.=
gif"
width=3D518 height=3D479></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ve=
rdana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ta=
homa;
font-size:8.0pt;color:#666666'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in=
'>Screen
clipping taken: 7/9/2005, 9:01 PM</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin:0in;margin-left:1.0in;font-family:Ve=
rdana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:11.0pt'>Condensed chr=
omatin
     can no longer be used as template for RNA synthesis, so transcription
     ceases during mitosis</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Genes can be localized to specific chromosome bands by </span><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;background:lime;mso-highlight:lime'>in situ </sp=
an><span
style=3D'background:lime;mso-highlight:lime'>hybridization, indicating that=
 the
packaging of DNA into metaphase chromosomes is highly ordered and reproduci=
ble
process </span></span></p>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Despite being highly order and
     condensed they will always fold up the same!</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>One chunk of DNA is always goi=
ng to
     get folded into a chromosome with a particular appearance and not a
     different one even if the two have the same amount of DNA, the locatio=
n of
     their genes on one chromosome will make it fold different?</span></spa=
n></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chromosomes=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Karyotype -=
 (we
are diploid) -line up those Chromosomes </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Structure o=
f a
Chromosome on the Metaphase Plate</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'=
>3
     Important Regions each with its own separate function</span></span></l=
i>
 <ol type=3D1 style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
  margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
  <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Telomers</span></li>
  <ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
   margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
   <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
       vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt=
'><img
       src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
       style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:li=
me;
       mso-highlight:lime'>Telomers are important structures for chromosome
       replication and maintenance</span></span></li>
   <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
       vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt=
'><span
       style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Maintenance of linear chromo=
some</span></li>
   <ol type=3D1 style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
    margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
    <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:4;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
        vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0p=
t'><span
        style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Without telomers the ends of
        linear DNA would get degraded</span></li>
   </ol>
  </ol>
  <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Centreomere</span></li>
  <ol type=3Di style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
   margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
   <li value=3D1 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
       vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt=
'><img
       src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=3D15>&nbsp;<span
       style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:li=
me;
       mso-highlight:lime'>Centromeres are specialized regions of the
       chromosome critical in making sure that each daughter cell gets one =
of
       each chromosome during mitosis</span></span></li>
   <li value=3D2 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
       vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt=
'><span
       style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>DNA stretch where sister
       chromatids are glued</span></li>
   <li value=3D3 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
       vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt=
'><span
       style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Sites of association of sist=
er
       chromatids</span></li>
   <li value=3D4 style=3D'mso-outline-level:3;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
       vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt=
'><span
       style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Sites of association of the
       attachment of microtubules of the mitotic spindle</span></li>
  </ol>
  <li value=3D3 style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;
      vertical-align:middle;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'=
><span
      style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Proteins at centromere to form
      kinetichore</span></li>
 </ol>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>What does a
centromere do?</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image053.=
gif"
width=3D435 height=3D330></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:Ver=
dana;
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relativ=
e;
     left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12=
.0pt'>Makes
     chromosomes segregate properly into daughter cells after division</spa=
n></span></li>
</ul>

<ul type=3Dcircle style=3D'margin-left:1.0in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:emb=
ed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Where sister chromatids are gl=
ued
     together by protein</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><img
     src=3D"chap1-4_files/image054.gif" width=3D639 height=3D377></span></l=
i>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt;color:#3366FF'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125i=
n'>All
centromeres do the same thing But they don’t have to look alike!</span></=
p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Telomers</s=
pan></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Keep linear D=
NA
     molecules like Chromosomes - Stable</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Chromosomes w=
/o
     Telomers become shorter and shorter …..</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>They are crit=
ical
     for the accurate replication of linear chromosomes --- chapter 5
     -telomerase</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>They are repe=
at
     sequences, and apparently can be in a loop!</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Proposed
Structure of a Telomer!!</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image055.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:fuchsia;
mso-highlight:fuchsia'>YAC libraries - Yeast Artificial Chromosomes </span>=
</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>have centrome=
re,
     origin of replication and telomers, selectable marker</span></span></l=
i>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Act like mini
     chromosomes</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Polytene
chromosomes - note banding pattern - from salivary glands of Drosophila </s=
pan></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>FISH</span>=
</p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Fluorescent <=
/span><span
     style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.=
0pt'>in
     situ</span><span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0=
pt'>
     hybridization on polytene chromosome</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>How to determ=
ine
     where a sequence of DNA is on a chromosome </span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>pink band</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Cytological M=
aps</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>More FISH</=
span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>On normal met=
aphase
     chromosomes Where’s the gene?</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Genome Proj=
ects -
Completely Sequenced (more or less)</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.=
0pt'>E.coli</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.=
0pt'>Arabadopsis</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.=
0pt'>C.
     elegans</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.=
0pt'>S.
     cerivisea</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.=
0pt'>Rhodobacter
     spheroides</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.=
0pt'>D.
     melanogaster</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-style:italic;font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.=
0pt'>H.
     sapiens</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>All are avail=
able
     at NCBI!</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Each one give=
s us
     more information</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Bioinformat=
ics</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>A new field of
     Biology</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Takes DNA seq=
uences
     from high-throughput projects - 10,000s DNA sequences per week</span><=
/span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Put in a user
     friendly database</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Annotate as t=
o what
     each sequence is likely to encode, </span><span style=3D'font-style:it=
alic;
     font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>e.g.,</span><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'> a kinase, a
     phosphatase, etc.</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Proteomics<=
/span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>So what we re=
ally
     want to know is what proteins are made and how are they modified in
     different cell types</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Isolate all
     proteins in a cell type, using analytical methods, MALDI-TOF (matrix
     assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectroscopy)
     etc. </span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>query the NCBI
     database, to identify all of the proteins</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:14.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>A new technol=
ogy -
     LOTS of info coming out!!</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Functions of
Predicted Genes from Arabidopis</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Maps of the=
 Human
Genome</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Banding patte=
rn
     from cytogenetic staining</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>&gt; 90% of t=
he
     genes have been sequenced - BUT still more to learn</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Restriction
Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Can be used to
     identify inheritance patterns</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>or an individ=
ual!</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Detection of
Microsatellite Markers by PCR</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Another way to
     identify inheritance </span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Transcript =
Map of
Human Chromosome 1</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Check out OMI=
M map
     viewer at NCBI!!!</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>8321 =3D FZD1=
</span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Verdana;font-size:11=
.0pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-style:italic;font-family:"T=
imes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Gene Therap=
y</span></p>

<ul type=3Ddisc style=3D'margin-left:.5in;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed;
 margin-top:0in;margin-bottom:0in'>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Now that it is
     possible to identify genes that cause disease</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>We can attemp=
t to
     carry out gene therapy</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>The replaceme=
nt of
     a defective gene with a functional gene in the cell</span></span></li>
 <li style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;vertical-ali=
gn:
     middle;font-size:16.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'=
><span
     style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'>Work in progr=
ess </span></span></li>
</ul>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Because of advances in molecular biology, it is now possible to map
complete genomes using RFLP, Microsatellite sequences, and FISH</span></spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>&nbsp;</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image002.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'background:lime;mso-=
highlight:
lime'>Because of advance in molecular biology, it is now possible to map and
sequence complete genomes</span></span></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:5.6979in;top:10.3722in;width:2.8222in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:11.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Note noncod=
ing
spacer sequence found at 5' end and 3' end located between genes</span></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:7.5in;top:40.1645in;width:1.8645in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span lang=
=3DEN-US>Members
of the human gene </span><span lang=3DEL>α</span><span lang=3DEN-US> and <=
/span><span
lang=3DEL>β</span><span lang=3DEN-US>-globin families are clustered on chr=
omosomes
16 and 11 respectively.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Each fami=
ly
contains genes that are specifically expressed in embryonic, fetal, and adu=
lt
tissues, in addition to nonfunctional gene copies</span></span></p>

</div>

</div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<div style=3D'position:relative;height:14.643in'>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;left:.0097in;top:0in;width:1.6659in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:14.0=
pt'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Terms</span></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'position:absolute;top:.7895in;width:6.7812in'>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Bioinformat=
ics </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'><span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>a new field of biolo=
gy
endeavoring to identify genes and protein structures from DNA sequences.</s=
pan></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Allele</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>One copy of a gene</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>Alleles are different forms of the same gene</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Diploid</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>An organism or cell that carries two copies of each chromosome=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Haploid</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>An organism or cell that has one copy of each chromosome</span=
></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image056.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Noncoding DNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Spacer sequ=
ences</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>The DNA sequences between genes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Introns</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>A noncoding sequence that interrupts exons in a gene</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>RNA
splicng/spliceosome</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Splicing:<s=
pan
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>The =
joining
of exons in a precursor RNA molecule</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Splicesome:=
<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>Large
complexes of snRNAs and proteins that catalyze the splicing of pre-mRNAs</s=
pan></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Exons</span=
></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>A segment of a gene that contains a coding sequence</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Gene famili=
es</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>A group of related genes that have arisen by duplication of co=
mmon
ancestor</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Pseudogenes=
 </span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>A nonfunctional gene copy</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image056.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Repetititve DNA sequences</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Satellite D=
NA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>Simple-sequence repetitive DNA with a buoyant density differing
from the bulk of genomic DNA</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chromosomes
(Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>The carriers of genes, consisting of long DNA molecules and
associated proteins</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Chromatin</=
span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>The fibrous complex of eukaryotic DNA and histone proteins</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Histones H1=
, H2A,
H2B, H3, H4</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>Proteins that package DNA in eukaryotic chromosomes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Nucleosome<=
/span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>The basic structural unit of chromatin consisting of DNA wrapp=
ed
around a histone core</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Euchromatin=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>Decondensed, transciptionally active interphase chromatin</spa=
n></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Heterochrom=
atin</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>Condensed, transciptionally inactive chromatin</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Telomeres</=
span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>Repeats of single-sequence DNA that maintain the ends of linear
chromosomes</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Centromeres=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>A specialized chromosomal region that connects sister chromati=
ds
and attaches them to the mitotic spindle</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Mitosis</sp=
an></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>Nuclear division</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic'>In situ</span> hybridization</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>a tec=
hnique
that is used to locate genes to specific bands/location on a chromosome. The
probe is RNA or DNA --FISH</span></span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>The use of radioactive or fluorescent probes to detect RNA or =
DNA
sequences in chromosomes or intact cells</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Kinetochore=
</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>A specialized structure consisting of proteins attached to a
centromere that mediated the attachment and movement of chromosomes at their
centromeres</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image056.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>S.
cerivisiae vs. S. pombe</span> centromeres</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>The centrom=
eres
of S. pombe span 40 to 100 kb of DNA; they are approximately a thousand tim=
es
larger that those of S. cerevisae (125 base pairs)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-family:"Ti=
mes New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Although S
cerevisiae and S pombe are both yeasts, they appear to be as divergent from
each other as either is from humans and are quite different in many aspects=
 of
their cell biology</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Teleomers</=
span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>YAC </span>=
</p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>(yeast artificial chromosome) a minichromosome with its own
telomere and centromere for cloning large pieces of genomic DNA from other
organisms, e.g., humans.</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>A vector that can replicate as a chromosome in yeast cells and=
 can
accommodate very large DNA inserts (hundreds of kb)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>RNAi
(interference RNA)</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:2;margin:0in;margin-left:.5in;font-style:ital=
ic;
font-family:"Times New Roman";font-size:12.0pt'><span style=3D'position:rel=
ative;
left:.125in'>The degradation of mRNAs by short complementary double stranded
RNA molecules</span></p>

<p style=3D'mso-outline-level:1;margin:0in;font-family:"Times New Roman";
font-size:12.0pt'><img src=3D"chap1-4_files/image056.gif" width=3D15 height=
=3D15>&nbsp;<span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Lipid Rafts as modification of the =
fluid
mosaic membrane model</span></p>

</div>

</div>

<div>

<p style=3D'margin:0in'>&nbsp;</p>

<p style=3D'margin:0in;font-family:Arial;font-size:9pt;color:#969696'><span
style=3D'position:relative;left:.125in'>Created with Microsoft Office OneNo=
te
2003<br>
One place for all your notes</span></p>

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